佛教的解脱法——八正道

The Eightfold Way

佛教的解脱法——八正道

John M. Koller

Although understanding the truths about suffering, its conditions, and its cessation is important to Buddhist practice, the fourth truth—that of the way to live to eliminate the conditions of duhkha—is the heart of the Buddhist way. Understanding is important, not because it satisfies intellectual curiosity, but because it affects and transforms life. While Buddhists have spent a great deal of time and energy memorizing, copying, and commenting on the Buddha's teachings, they have generally understood that the real point is fully to incorporate these teachings into one's whole life and embody them in every moment of existence. The Brahmajala Sutra makes the point dramatically: "Peeling your own skin for paper, with blood for ink, and spinal fluid for water to mix it, using your bones for a pen you should copy out the teachings of the Buddha."

The way of life set forth as the fourth noble truth, the middle way, was declared by the Buddha in his first sermon. It consists in

1. Right understanding

2. Right intention  Wisdom 

　 

3. Right speech

4. Right action

5. Right livelihood  Moral conduct 

　 

6. Right effort

7. Right mindfulness

8. Right concentration  Contemplation 

As indicated by the headings on the right, these eight norms are customarily grouped under the three basic axioms of the middle way: wisdom, moral conduct, and contemplation.

Because this eightfold way is called a path (marga), people sometimes think that practice should proceed sequentially, beginning with right understanding, right intention, and so on until the concluding practice of right concentration is taken up. This is a serious mistake, however, for these eight norms of wholesome living need to be followed simultaneously, as they are interrelated and mutually supportive. Although it is true that, without at least and initial understanding of the nature of existence as well as the existence, conditions, and way of eliminating duhkha, a person would have no reason to practice the eightfold way, this understanding may be quite shallow and incomplete. But if it serves to activate the intention of avoiding all forms of evil and unwholesome actions to pursue a moral and wholesome life, thereby giving rise to the practices of contemplation, then this initial understanding will be deepened and the initial intention strengthened. Gradually, as compassion replaces desires and aversions as the basis of all action, and right effort, mindfulness and concentration develop a higher meditative insight, a complete understanding based on direct insight can replace the partial understanding based merely on confidence in reason or someone else's word. But these three axioms of the middle way—wisdom, moral conduct, and contemplation—are interdependent, with progress in any one area dependent upon progress in the other two. Without moral control over the passions and the replacement of desire with compassion as the mainspring of action, the self-discipline of right effort, mindfulness, and concentration leading to contemplative insight cannot be achieved. 

But without self-discipline and insight, it is impossible to achieve moral conduct—right speech, action, and livelihood. And of course, without right understanding and right intention—which cannot be acquired without practicing moral conduct and contemplation—one cannot achieve moral purity or contemplative insight. Thus, although it is customary to begin explanations of the path with right understanding, it must be understood that in the practice of the middle way these eight norms are to be followed simultaneously as the basis of a completely integrated life.

Wisdom, the guide to wholesome living whereby suffering is overcome, comprises both the right understanding of existence and the intention to act in accord with this understanding, that is, the intention to act only out of love, compassion, goodwill, and selflessness. That wisdom is thought of as including the resolution to live in this wholesome way shows that this is not merely theoretical knowledge. Indeed, the Buddha described right understanding variously as (1) understanding of the four noble truths; (2) understanding what is conducive to wholesome and unwholesome existence; (3) understanding that the formations of existence are impermanent, without self, and (when attached to a self) duhkha; (4) understanding the conditionedness of all existence; and (5) understanding how the fetters that bind one to the wheel of suffering (self-illusion, skepticism, attachment to mere rule and ritual, sensual lust, ill will, craving for material existence, craving for immaterial existence, conceit, restlessness, and ignorance) can be removed.

Clearly, although right understanding does not exclude theoretical knowledge, it should not be equated with metaphysical theories about the self and the self and the world—theories that the Buddha described as a jungle or wilderness. The parable of Mālunׂkyāputta contained in the Majjhima Nikāya illustrates the Buddha's attitude toward metaphysical theories very nicely.

One day while meditating, it occurred to the monk, Mālunׂkyāputta, that the Buddha had set aside and left unanswered a whole set of important metaphysical questions—whether the world is eternal or not, whether the world is finite or infinite, whether the self and the body are separate or identical, and whether a saint exists after death or not. So he approached the Buddha, angrily declaring that, unless the Blessed One answered these questions, he would abandon the monastic life. After reminding Mālunׂkyāputta that he had never promised to answer these questions if Mālunׂkyāputta took up the religious life with him, the Buddha explained that these questions rested on a great many theoretical distinctions and assumptions and could not possibly be answered in the relatively short time before a person died. Furthermore, these questions were beside the point: "It is as if Mālunׂkyāputta, a man had been wounded by an arrow thickly smeared with poison, and his friends and companions, his relatives and kinsfolk, were to procure for him a physician or surgeon, and the sick man were to say: 'I will not have this arrow taken out until I have learned whether the man who wounded me belonged to the brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya, vaiśya, or śudra class; the name of the person who wounded me and the clan to which he belongs; whether he was tall, short, or medium in height; whether he was black, yellow, or brown; what village, city, or town he was from; what kind of wood the bow was made from; what kind of material the bow-string was made of; what kind of arrow it was, and with what it was feathered; what kind of sinews it was bound with; and what kind of point it had.' That man would die, Mālunׂkyāputta, without ever having learning this."

The Buddha goes on to say that, in the same way, a person who refused to begin religious practice until the Buddha answered all the metaphysical questions posed by Mālunׂkyāputta, would be dead before he got the answers. "The religious life, Mālunׂkyāputta, does not depend on the dogma that the world is eternal; nor does the religious life, Mālunׂkyāputta, depend on the dogma that the world is not eternal. Whether the dogma obtains, Mālunׂkyāputta, that the world is eternal, or that the world is not eternal, there still remain birth, old age, death, sorrow, lamentation, misery, grief, and despair, for the extinction of which in the present life I am prescribing. Then the Buddha repeats this for each of the other questions posed by Mālunׂkyāputta, pointing out that he has not elucidated any of these theories because this kind of speculation "profits not, nor has to do with the fundamentals of religion, nor tends to aversion, absence of passion, cessation, quiescence ［of duḥkha］， the supernatural faculties, supreme wisdom, and nirvāṇa; therefore have I elucidated it.

"And what, Mālunׂkyāputta, have Ielucidated? Duḥkha, Mālunׂkyāputta, have I elucidated; the origin of duḥkha have I elucidated; the cessation of duḥkha have I elucidated; and the path leading to the cessation of duḥkha have I elucidated. And why, Mālunׂkyāputta, have I elucidated this? Because, Mālunׂkyāputta, this does profit, has to do with the fundamentals of religion, and tends to aversion, absence of passion, cessation, quiesence ［of duḥkha］, understanding, supreme wisdom and Nirvāṇa; therefore I have elucidateḍ it. Accordingly, Mālunׂkyāputta, bear always in mind what it is that I have not elucidated, and what it is that I have elucidated."

Because right understanding is seen as a kind of practical knowledge of the conditions of duḥkha and the elimination of these conditions, it naturally leads to the resolve to free oneself from the attitudes and intentions that lead to ill will, lust, and hurting. Put positively, right intention is the intention or resolve to cultivate selflessness, goodwill, compassion, and love for all beings.

The right understanding and right intention of wisdom lead directly to moral conduct, for wrong speech, actions, and means of livelihood spring from wrong understanding and wrong intentions. The third norm, that of right speech, requires telling the truth, speaking in kind and friendly ways, and saying only what is useful. The principle is that speech should be used to bring about wholesomeness. Speech that leads to unwholesomeness should be avoided. Thus the norm of right speech prohibits (1) lying; (2) slander, character assassination, or talk that might bring about hatred, jealousy, enmity, or discord among others; (3) harsh or rude talk, including all kinds of impolite, abusive, and malicious language; and (4) idle chatter and gossip. 

Right action means that all of one's action should respect the wellbeing of others, fostering the peace and happiness of all living beings. Negatively, it prohibits killing or hurting living beings, stealing, dishonesty, and illegitimate sexual activity.

Right livelihood extends the norms of right speech and action to one's means of earning a living. Only those means of livelihood that promote peace and the well-being of oneself and others are allowed. Occupations and professions that bring harm to others, such as trading in firearms, liquor or drugs, killing, and sexual procurement, are prohibited.

The third group of norms—right effort, mindfulness, and concentration—aims at inculcating a steady discipline of consciousness that brings about self-awareness and insight. Right effort includes cultivating a strong will capable of (1) preventing evil and unwholesome states of mind from arising; (2) overcoming evil and unwholesome states of mind (e.g., greed, anger, selfishness, ill will, lust, and delusion) that have already arisen, (3) bringing about good and wholesome states of mind; and (4) developing and maintaining good and wholesome states of mind already present. It is suggested that the appropriate attitude toward right effort on the part of a person who has penetrated the Buddha's teaching and is possessed of faith is reflected in the thought, "Though skin, sinews and bones wither away, though flesh and blood of my body dry up, I shall not give up my efforts till I have attained whatever is attainable by courageous perseverance, energy and endeavor" (Majjhima Nikāya, 70). 

Right mindfulness consists in being carefully aware of and attentive to the activities of (1) the body, (2) sensations and feelings, (3) the mind, and (4) thinking and conceiving. Mindfulness of the body can be attained through attention to breathing, to bodily positions and activities, and to the various internal processes. Mindfulness of sensations and feelings is achieved by attending to whether they are pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral and to how they arise and disappear within oneself. Mindfulness of mental activities is achieved by being attentive to all the activities of the mind and becoming aware of whether or not one's thoughts are greedy, lustful, deluded, distracted, concentrated, and so on. Mindfulness of thinking and conceiving is achieved by attending to how thoughts and ideas arise, how they disappear, and how they are developed or suppressed and the conditions on which they depend.

The practices of right mindfulness are intended to enable a person to live as completely as possible in the present moment of existence in complete self-awareness, overcoming both distractedness and self-conciousness. Because this kind of meditation leads to direct insight into oneself and into the nature of things, the self-consciousness and distancing that most modes of self-awareness entail are avoided, and a sense of wholeness is achieved. In a way this practice of the fourfold right mindfulness is the heart of the Buddhist way. In the discourse on the "Setting Up of Mindfulness" (Dīgha Nikāya, 22), the Buddha brings the understanding of the four noble truths and the practice of the eightfold noble path within the practice of right mindfulness. Why this should be so is expressed with a certain elegance in the opening verses of the Dhammapada, where the insight that ignorance and suffering on the one hand, and happiness and enlightenment on the other, are dependent upon one's mental states is formulated as follows:

Mind precedes all unwholesome states and is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts, misery follows him like the wheel that dogs the foot of the ox. Mind precedes all wholesome states and is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. If with a pure mind a person speaks or acts, happiness follows him like his never departing shadow.

But to achieve the purity of mind that dispels misery and unwholesomeness, right mindfulness needs to incorporate the practices of concentration or dhyāna. Four stages of concentration can be distinguished. (1) First is the stage where thoughts of lust, ill will, worry, anxiety, doubt, laziness are eliminated and are replaced with a sense of joy and well-being. (2) In the next stage all forms of mental activity and thinking are left behind, and one's existence is pervaded by joy and a sense of well-being. (3) In the third stage of absorption the mental activities responsible for the feelings of joy are transcended, and one achieves equanimity pervaded by happiness. (4) Finally, in the fourth stage, direct insight replaces all activities of the mind, and a perfect equanimity is achieved beyond the dualities of grief and joy.

This insight is the basis of the wisdom that sees the conditionedness and interrelatedness of all existence: a pervasive interdependence leaving no foothold for selfishness and ill will. Now sympathy and compassion replace selfishness and utility as motivation for speech, thought, and action. Ignorant grasping for self and things is replaced by an equanimity that frees a person from fear and anxiety, permitting life to be lived to its fullest possible extent—here, now, in this present moment of existence.